A book about a new physics of the Atom and the Universe

by Paul G Leader

Preface Introduction Particles, Fields & Relativity Why Quantum Field Theory in its current form has produced flawed outcomes and is incompatible with General Relativity. Occam's Razor The Aether & the Fundamental Force The impossibility of pre-creation empty space and the necessary existence of an aether; a description of its nature; its constituent fundamental quanta; their configurations and behaviours; the fundamental force as the sole force in nature. The Quantum The intrinsic properties of fundamental quanta including charge, size and spin; zero-point energy. Mass A definition of mass and explanations for why some particles are massive and others have zero mass. The Speed of Light Why the speed of light is constant in a given medium; resonant mass; the orbital structure and speed of neutrinos and photons; neutrino and photon orientation; photon energy loss with distance. The Four Elementary Particles The existence and composition of the four elementary particles, the neutrino, photon, electron and positron; the proton’s ‘extra quanta’ mass anomaly; an overview of fast and slow particles and their essential properties. The Neutrino The structure and formation of the neutrino and how neutrinos become energised and increase in orbital size. The properties of neutrinos, explained here, provide the underlying mechanism for the electrostatic force, gravity and for the creation of matter. The n-neutrino and p-neutrino Terminology for the different polarisation states of neutrinos; n-neutrinos and p neutrinos. The Electrostatic Force An explanation for the electrostatic force; attraction and repulsion; why it is not a fundamental force; range. Static Electricity How dipoles in a material interact with an electric field and how this produces static charge. Gravity An explanation for gravity; why it is such a weak force; why it is not a fundamental force; the Casimir Effect; gyroscopes; swirling water in a bucket. The Photon The structure of photons; how photons are energised; orbital size change with energy; photon orientation; n- photons and p-photons; spin; interactions with electrons and other particles; photon redshift. Electrons & Positrons A description of the elementary particles the electron and the positron; their structure, size, mass, speed and stability; surrounding neutrino clouds. Electron Orbits An explanation for the discrete orbital energy levels of atomic electrons; how and why a gas discharge tube produces light with a characteristic energy; atomic absorption and emission spectra; the problem with the standard physics explanations for these effects. Magnetism The nature of magnetism; behaviour of electrons in a magnetic field; repulsion and attraction between electrical currents; induced current and Fleming’s Right Hand Rule. Pair Production & Annihilation A description of the processes that produce and annihilate electrons and positrons and are fundamental to understanding the creation of matter and the assembly of the proton. Matter Creation How matter is created from photon-neutrino interaction in an electrostatic field and an explanation for the birth of stars. Proton Assembly, Size & Stability How protons are assembled and the formation of atoms; why protons are the size they are and why newly formed protons are much smaller; maximum and minimum size for a proton; the size of protons in our galaxy; the formation and decay of muons and antimuons. The Neutron An explanation for the neutron and the force that makes it bind to a proton. Why a free neutron is unstable and how it decays into a proton, an electron and a neutrino. Creation The formation of the first elementary particles leading to the creation of matter in the universe; why our universe is made from matter and not antimatter; antimatter universes. Matter in the Universe A summary of the process of matter creation; dark matter and dark energy; matter and antimatter in the universe; matter evaporation; the cosmic microwave background; star formation; supernovae and nebulae; galaxies; galactic jets; galactic rotation; quasar ghosts; black holes; stability and future of the universe; power generation. Relativity The aether as a single inertial frame of reference; the constancy of the speed of radiated light from speeding bodies; relativistic time dilation; relative motion; red/blueshift; gravitational lensing. Orbital Structures Summary A summary of some of the main areas in which this model of the atom and the universe diverges substantially from the current establishment models Conclusion

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About the Author

Always curious about how things work, I was naturally drawn towards physics at school and then, later, to a degree course in physics at Leeds University. The degree syllabus, even by the late 1960s, was heavily weighted towards mathematics, rather than towards science. Back then, as now, I saw mathematics as being the perfect tool to accurately describe a theoretical or physical model, but as saying nothing at all about whether the model in any way represents reality. However, it was what it was and so I engaged with the maths but preferred the physics. In those days, physics still saw itself as being a process of observation, hypothesis, experiment and confirmation. If the experiment bit didn’t confirm the hypothesis, then it was a case of ‘back to the drawing board’ and rethink the hypothesis. Nowadays the process is more usually one of observation, comparison with the current established model and then, if things don’t fit, to add more hypothetical particles, fields or forces as required to fix the issue. And then, when subsequent observed facts once again don’t fit the new version of things then, well, that’s partly what has motivated this book. Inspired by the atomic and cosmic aspects of the physics syllabus at Leeds, I felt excited to be learning about how the universe worked. A feeling that has stayed with me ever since. I graduated in 1970 with an honours degree and entered the world of working for a living as a physicist working for a scientific instrument company, developing analytical atomic absorption methodologies. Then, after a few more years with a similar company, this time refining analytical techniques in liquid chromatography, I moved into technical sales and then management and away from a direct involvement with physics. But I never lost my curiosity about how the universe works. Or my increasing sense of frustration whenever unproven scientific theory is presented in the media as if established fact. After many years of bristling at every mention of black holes, big bangs, dark matter or curved space-time, I decided that maybe it was time to do something a bit more constructive. Hence this book.

5

The Essential Universe is a new theory of physics, a complete rethinking of the atom and the universe. It presents a simple alternative to the established Standard Model and General Relativity models which are not only mutually inconsistent but also highly complex, intrinsically mathematical, full of hypotheticals and, despite all their complexity, fall well short of explaining how atoms and the universe work. The new physics in this book requires just two fundamental particles, one fundamental force and the basic laws of physics to explain everything from creation to the structure of the atom, gravity, stars and galaxies.

The Standard Model is a construct of large numbers of real, hypothetical and virtual particles and forces interacting in highly complex ways within what can only be described as a mathematical reality. Over the years, as improved observational tools have exposed inconsistencies and shortcomings, the theory has been adapted, not by going back to basics and rethinking things, but by adding more and more hypothetical particles, forces and mathematical complexity into the mix until, today, it pretty much fits anything you could throw at it. When something new comes along which cannot be explained, the accepted fallback solution now is to add in yet more hypotheticals and complexity until the theory once more tallies with the new information. The result is a super-complex, inherently mathematical, catch-all behemoth of a theory which, because it has a working explanation for most currently-observed atomic behaviours, it is considered to be an outstanding success. Except that it doesn’t explain everything. It cannot explain gravity. Or the electron. Or the lack of antimatter it says should exist. It cannot explain the behaviour of stars and galaxies without recourse to more hypotheticals such as dark matter and dark energy. It is incompatible with the other consensus theory of the universe, General Relativity and so clearly one, or both, must be flawed. Because it presents us with hypothetical forms of matter, theoretical particles and virtual interactions which can only exist in a mathematical reality, it is continually being confounded by real-world observations. Common-sense alone tells us that the universe is real, not mathematical. Physics is physics. It clearly makes no sense to have to wheel in one version of physics to explain the very small and then to have to abandon that in favour of a completely different version of physics to explain the very big. However, that is exactly what we have at the moment.

Why do we need a new theory of physics?

The New Theory

The Quantum Aether Theory, just like Quantum Field Theory with its universal aether of fundamental fields, is an aether model. However, unlike QFT which requires dozens of widely disparate fields, the new model recognises an infinite universe of just two equal and opposite fields, or particles and one fundamental force. These particles are the fundamental quanta of positive and negative charge and the fundamental force is the attraction between them. There is nothing hypothetical about such quanta, they are real and precisely measured with a known charge of 1.6x10 -19 C. The elementary particles comprising protons and atoms are simply various natural orbital arrangements of these quanta. This means that all atomic and subatomic particles, the structure of the atom, the creation of matter, the formation and behaviour of stars and galaxies then become understandable and explainable in terms of just two fundamental particles and the fundamental force of attraction between them. There’s no need for a singularity, cosmic inflation, dark matter, dark energy, gravitons or curved spacetime - everything becomes easily explained without them and understandable using the basic laws of physics rather than the somewhat more adaptable laws of mathematics. Because particles such as quarks, gluons, W&Z bosons and their proposed anti-particles do not actually exist, the need for the huge weight of convoluted mathematical explanation surrounding them simply disappears. Similarly, since there is just one fundamental force, not four as required by the Standard Model, everything becomes hugely less complicated. The model can be represented schematically as follows:

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The two fundamental quanta combine and interact to produce the four elementary particles which together form atoms and all the matter, stars and galaxies in the universe. As shown in the above schematic, positrons have a central positive quantum and electrons a central negative quantum.

A book about a new physics of the Atom and the Universe

by Paul G Leader

Preface Introduction Particles, Fields & Relativity Why Quantum Field Theory in its current form has produced flawed outcomes and is incompatible with General Relativity. Occam's Razor The Aether & the Fundamental Force The impossibility of pre-creation empty space and the necessary existence of an aether; a description of its nature; its constituent fundamental quanta; their configurations and behaviours; the fundamental force as the sole force in nature. The Quantum The intrinsic properties of fundamental quanta including charge, size and spin; zero-point energy. Mass A definition of mass and explanations for why some particles are massive and others have zero mass. The Speed of Light Why the speed of light is constant in a given medium; resonant mass; the orbital structure and speed of neutrinos and photons; neutrino and photon orientation; photon energy loss with distance. The Four Elementary Particles The existence and composition of the four elementary particles, the neutrino, photon, electron and positron; the proton’s ‘extra quanta’ mass anomaly; an overview of fast and slow particles and their essential properties. The Neutrino The structure and formation of the neutrino and how neutrinos become energised and increase in orbital size. The properties of neutrinos, explained here, provide the underlying mechanism for the electrostatic force, gravity and for the creation of matter. The n-neutrino and p-neutrino Terminology for the different polarisation states of neutrinos; n-neutrinos and p neutrinos. The Electrostatic Force An explanation for the electrostatic force; attraction and repulsion; why it is not a fundamental force; range. Static Electricity How dipoles in a material interact with an electric field and how this produces static charge. Gravity An explanation for gravity; why it is such a weak force; why it is not a fundamental force; the Casimir Effect; gyroscopes; swirling water in a bucket. The Photon The structure of photons; how photons are energised; orbital size change with energy; photon orientation; n-photons and p-photons; spin; interactions with electrons and other particles; photon redshift. Electrons & Positrons A description of the elementary particles the electron and the positron; their structure, size, mass, speed and stability; surrounding neutrino clouds. Electron Orbits An explanation for the discrete orbital energy levels of atomic electrons; how and why a gas discharge tube produces light with a characteristic energy; atomic absorption and emission spectra; the problem with the standard physics explanations for these effects. Magnetism The nature of magnetism; behaviour of electrons in a magnetic field; repulsion and attraction between electrical currents; induced current and Fleming’s Right Hand Rule. Pair Production & Annihilation A description of the processes that produce and annihilate electrons and positrons and are fundamental to understanding the creation of matter and the assembly of the proton. Matter Creation How matter is created from photon-neutrino interaction in an electrostatic field and an explanation for the birth of stars. Proton Assembly, Size & Stability How protons are assembled and the formation of atoms; why protons are the size they are and why newly formed protons are much smaller; maximum and minimum size for a proton; the size of protons in our galaxy; the formation and decay of muons and antimuons. The Neutron An explanation for the neutron and the force that makes it bind to a proton. Why a free neutron is unstable and how it decays into a proton, an electron and a neutrino. Creation The formation of the first elementary particles leading to the creation of matter in the universe; why our universe is made from matter and not antimatter; antimatter universes. Matter in the Universe A summary of the process of matter creation; dark matter and dark energy; matter and antimatter in the universe; matter evaporation; the cosmic microwave background; star formation; supernovae and nebulae; galaxies; galactic jets; galactic rotation; quasar ghosts; black holes; stability and future of the universe; power generation. Relativity The aether as a single inertial frame of reference; the constancy of the speed of radiated light from speeding bodies; relativistic time dilation; relative motion; red/blueshift; gravitational lensing. Orbital Structures Summary A summary of some of the main areas in which this model of the atom and the universe diverges substantially from the current establishment models Conclusion

13

9

15

17

21

25

27

35

41

47

49

53

57

63

73

77

85

93

97

103

111

115

121

145

153

About the Author

Always curious about how things work, I was naturally drawn towards physics at school and then, later, to a degree course in physics at Leeds University. The degree syllabus, even by the late 1960s, was heavily weighted towards mathematics, rather than towards science. Back then, as now, I saw mathematics as being the perfect tool to accurately describe a theoretical or physical model, but as saying nothing at all about whether the model in any way represents reality. However, it was what it was and so I engaged with the maths but preferred the physics. In those days, physics still saw itself as being a process of observation, hypothesis, experiment and confirmation. If the experiment bit didn’t confirm the hypothesis, then it was a case of ‘back to the drawing board’ and rethink the hypothesis. Nowadays the process is more usually one of observation, comparison with the current established model and then, if things don’t fit, to add more hypothetical particles, fields or forces as required to fix the issue. And then, when subsequent observed facts once again don’t fit the new version of things then, well, that’s partly what has motivated this book. Inspired by the atomic and cosmic aspects of the physics syllabus at Leeds, I felt excited to be learning about how the universe worked. A feeling that has stayed with me ever since. I graduated in 1970 with an honours degree and entered the world of working for a living as a physicist working for a scientific instrument company, developing analytical atomic absorption methodologies. Then, after a few more years with a similar company, this time refining analytical techniques in liquid chromatography, I moved into technical sales and then management and away from a direct involvement with physics. But I never lost my curiosity about how the universe works. Or my increasing sense of frustration whenever unproven scientific theory is presented in the media as if established fact. After many years of bristling at every mention of black holes, big bangs, dark matter or curved space-time, I decided that maybe it was time to do something a bit more constructive. Hence this book.

5

154

The Essential Universe is a new theory of physics, a complete rethinking of the atom and the universe. It presents a simple alternative to the established Standard Model and General Relativity models which are not only mutually inconsistent but also highly complex, intrinsically mathematical, full of hypotheticals and, despite all their complexity, fall well short of explaining how atoms and the universe work. The new physics in this book requires just two fundamental particles, one fundamental force and the basic laws of physics to explain everything from creation to the structure of the atom, gravity, stars and galaxies.

The Standard Model is a construct of large numbers of real, hypothetical and virtual particles and forces interacting in highly complex ways within what can only be described as a mathematical reality. Over the years, as improved observational tools have exposed inconsistencies and shortcomings, the theory has been adapted, not by going back to basics and rethinking things, but by adding more and more hypothetical particles, forces and mathematical complexity into the mix until, today, it pretty much fits anything you could throw at it. When something new comes along which cannot be explained, the accepted fallback solution now is to add in yet more hypotheticals and complexity until the theory once more tallies with the new information. The result is a super-complex, inherently mathematical, catch-all behemoth of a theory which, because it has a working explanation for most currently-observed atomic behaviours, it is considered to be an outstanding success. Except that it doesn’t explain everything. It cannot explain gravity. Or the electron. Or the lack of antimatter it says should exist. It cannot explain the behaviour of stars and galaxies without recourse to more hypotheticals such as dark matter and dark energy. It is incompatible with the other consensus theory of the universe, General Relativity and so clearly one, or both, must be flawed. Because it presents us with hypothetical forms of matter, theoretical particles and virtual interactions which can only exist in a mathematical reality, it is continually being confounded by real-world observations. Common-sense alone tells us that the universe is real, not mathematical. Physics is physics. It clearly makes no sense to have to wheel in one version of physics to explain the very small and then to have to abandon that in favour of a completely different version of physics to explain the very big. However, that is exactly what we have at the moment.

Why do we need a new theory of physics?

The New Theory

The Quantum Aether Theory, just like Quantum Field Theory with its universal aether of fundamental fields, is an aether model. However, unlike QFT which requires dozens of widely disparate fields, the new model recognises an infinite universe of just two equal and opposite fields, or particles and one fundamental force. These particles are the fundamental quanta of positive and negative charge and the fundamental force is the attraction between them. There is nothing hypothetical about such quanta, they are real and precisely measured with a known charge of 1.6x10 -19 C. The elementary particles comprising protons and atoms are simply various natural orbital arrangements of these quanta. This means that all atomic and subatomic particles, the structure of the atom, the creation of matter, the formation and behaviour of stars and galaxies then become understandable and explainable in terms of just two fundamental particles and the fundamental force of attraction between them. There’s no need for a singularity, cosmic inflation, dark matter, dark energy, gravitons or curved spacetime - everything becomes easily explained without them and understandable using the basic laws of physics rather than the somewhat more adaptable laws of mathematics. Because particles such as quarks, gluons, W&Z bosons and their proposed anti-particles do not actually exist, the need for the huge weight of convoluted mathematical explanation surrounding them simply disappears. Similarly, since there is just one fundamental force, not four as required by the Standard Model, everything becomes hugely less complicated. The model can be represented schematically as follows:

156

The two fundamental quanta combine and interact to produce the four elementary particles which together form atoms and all the matter, stars and galaxies in the universe. As shown in the above schematic, positrons have a central positive quantum and electrons a central negative quantum.